11/11/2026

El Régimen Híbrido de la Apologética Académica SUD: Usos de la Ciencia en la defensa del Libro del Mormon, por Neshamot Deot

BS"D



por Neshamot Deot

Introducción

La Journal of Book of Mormon Studies (y sus publicaciones sucesoras) constituye un laboratorio privilegiado para observar un fenómeno epistemológico singular: la movilización sistemática de métodos, datos y criterios de validación propios de las ciencias seculares (arqueología, lingüística, epigrafía, análisis estadístico, cartografía histórica) con fines confesionales. Lejos de constituir una mera "fachada científica" o un ejercicio de apologética ingenua, estos artículos despliegan lo que podría denominarse un régimen híbrido de producción de verdad; es decir, un espacio discursivo donde una pretendida autoridad profética y el rigor académico negocian constantemente sus fronteras, sin que ninguna de las dos lógicas termine por anular completamente a la otra, sino condicionarse mutuamente para producir una narrativa conveniente a una institución poderosa: La Iglesia de Jesucristo de los Santos de los últimos Días (Iglesia SUD).

Considerando lo anterior, el presente ensayo examina, a partir del análisis detallado de ocho artículos publicados entre 1993 y 2015, las principales estrategias mediante las cuales los académicos afiliados a la Iglesia SUD emplean elementos científicos para defender la historicidad y autenticidad del Libro de Mormón. Se argumentará que este régimen híbrido no es una contradicción o un error metodológico, sino una maquinaria retórica sofisticada que opera según reglas propias: la fe establece las premisas fundamentales, mientras que la ciencia es convocada para construir plausibilidad, refutar objeciones y, sobre todo, para demostrar que el texto sagrado podría ser histórico dentro de los marcos aceptados por la academia secular.

1. La arqueología de la plausibilidad: Nahom y la ruta de Lehi

Uno de los ejemplos más citados de "convergencia científica" es el caso de Nahom, el lugar mencionado en 1 Nefi 16:-33-34 donde se supone fue enterrado Ismael durante el viaje de la familia de Lehi por Arabia1. James Gee, en "The Nahom Maps" (2008), sostiene que cartógrafos europeos de los siglos XVIII y XIX (D'Anville, Niebuhr, Bonne, Cary) documentaron consistentemente un distrito llamado Nehem o Nahom en el suroeste de la península arábiga, en una ubicación que coincide geográficamente con la descripción del texto mormón.

"The mention of Nahom on the finest maps by the greatest cartographers of the times, in a location that corresponds to Lehi's account, gives credence to Lehi's travels." (Gee, 2008, p. 40)

["La mención de Nahom en los mejores mapas de los más grandes cartógrafos de la época, en una ubicación que corresponde al relato de Lehi, da credibilidad a los viajes de Lehi."]

La estrategia apologética aquí es triple. Primero, se apela a la autoridad por reputación: D'Anville era conocido por incluir solo información verificada, por lo que su registro de Nehem avalaría la historicidad del topónimo. Segundo, se enfatiza la dificultad de la falsificación: ningún autor del siglo XIX (y mucho menos Joseph Smith) podría haber inventado un topónimo árabe que aparecería décadas después en mapas europeos basados en expediciones reales. Tercero, se opera un desplazamiento del escándalo: el hecho de que Nahom sea un nombre árabe y no hebreo no es un problema, sino un "indicador de autenticidad", ya que Nefi señala que el lugar "se llamaba" así, presumiblemente por la población local.

El arqueólogo Jeffrey R. Chadwick refuerza esta línea en "An Archaeologist's View" (2006), donde evalúa críticamente distintas propuestas sobre la ruta de Lehi. Su postura es explícitamente confesional:

"As an active Near Eastern field archaeologist, I have never studied or unearthed anything in the last quarter century of research that has caused me to doubt that the account in 1 Nephi was originally composed by a Hebrew-speaking Jew from Jerusalem of the late seventh century BC, namely Nephi, son of Lehi." (Chadwick, 2006, p. 68)

["Como arqueólogo de campo activo del Cercano Oriente, nunca he estudiado ni desenterrado nada en el último cuarto de siglo de investigación que me haya hecho dudar de que el relato en 1 Nefi fue compuesto originalmente por un judío hablante de hebreo de Jerusalén de finales del siglo VII a.C., a saber, Nefi, hijo de Lehi."]

Nótese la operación retórica: la afirmación de fe ("Nefi, hijo de Lehi, escribió esto") se presenta como una conclusión inductiva derivada de la evidencia arqueológica, cuando en realidad es la premisa que organiza la selección e interpretación de esa evidencia. Este movimiento (la naturalización de lo extraordinario) es característico de lo que aquí he denominado régimen híbrido.

2. Mesoamérica como escenario: Paralelos culturales y semiótica arqueológica

Si la ruta de Lehi en Arabia ofrece evidencia "externa", el corazón de la apologética geográfica SUD se encuentra en Mesoamérica. John E. Clark, en "Archaeology, Relics, and Book of Mormon Belief" (2005), enumera doce correspondencias entre el registro arqueológico mesoamericano y las afirmaciones del Libro de Mormón: registros en metal, escritura, guerra fortificada, ciudades con muros y torres, sistemas de reyes sagrados, cronologías compatibles, entre otras.

"The accumulating evidence from archaeology and the impressive internal evidence demonstrate that the Book of Mormon is an authentic ancient book of New World origin. The only plausible explanation for the book's existence is that supernatural agencies were involved in its coming forth in our day." (Clark, 2005, p. 59)

["La evidencia acumulada de la arqueología y la impresionante evidencia interna demuestran que el Libro de Mormón es un libro antiguo auténtico de origen del Nuevo Mundo. La única explicación plausible para la existencia del libro es que agencias sobrenaturales estuvieron involucradas en su surgimiento en nuestros días."]

Clark introduce aquí un criterio epistemológico central en este régimen híbrido: la improbabilidad estadística como prueba de origen divino. Cuanto más bajo sea el cálculo de que Joseph Smith pudiera haber "adivinado" un hecho futuro o desconocido para su época, más fuerte es la inferencia de que recibió la información por revelación. Este razonamiento (similar al argumento del "diseño inteligente" en biología para intentar en vano desmentir la evolución) transforma la convergencia accidental en evidencia de agencia sobrenatural.

Kerry Hull, en "War Banners: A Mesoamerican Context for the Title of Liberty" (2015), lleva esta lógica un paso más allá. No se contenta con paralelos generales; busca correspondencias lingüísticas y poéticas precisas. Hull identifica que el término maya lakam significa simultáneamente "estandarte/bandera" y "piedra grande/estela", y que el pareado sinónimo "plantó/enarboló" en Alma 46:362 tiene un paralelo exacto en la frase jeroglífica u-tz'apaw u-lakam-tuun ("plantó su piedra-estandarte").

"The presence in the Book of Mormon of the precise terminology and couplet structure associated with the erection of banner stones in Late Classic Maya society is extraordinary." (Hull, 2015, p. 116)

["La presencia en el Libro de Mormón de la terminología precisa y la estructura de pareado asociada con la erección de piedras-estandarte en la sociedad maya del Clásico Tardío es extraordinaria."]

La palabra "extraordinary" revela la función apologética: no se trata de un paralelo vago o esperable, sino de una coincidencia tan precisa que supera el umbral de lo que podría explicarse por azar o por conocimiento común del siglo XIX. Hull, sin embargo, mantiene un tono académico y evita afirmar "prueba divina". Su estrategia es más sutil: construir un campo de resonancias donde el texto sagrado encaja orgánicamente en un entorno cultural antiguo, haciendo que la hipótesis de la invención moderna sea cada vez más improbable.

Diane Wirth, en "Quetzalcoatl, the Maya Maize God, and Jesus Christ" (2002), explora un terreno más riesgoso: la identificación de deidades mesoamericanas con Cristo. Aquí el régimen híbrido muestra sus tensiones. Wirth distingue entre asociaciones "cuestionables" (nacimiento virginal, asociación con Venus) y asociaciones "plausibles" (participación en la creación, pan de vida, derramamiento de sangre, muerte en un árbol, resurrección). Esta taxonomía de la plausibilidad permite a la autora afirmar continuidades sin tener que defender todos los paralelos por igual. Es una forma de humildad epistémica estratégica: reconocer las dificultades fortalece la credibilidad del núcleo del argumento.

3. La lingüística como campo de batalla: Escritura egipcia y textos semíticos

Una de las críticas más tempranas al Libro de Mormón fue su afirmación de que estaba escrito en "egipcio reformado" para registrar un idioma semítico (hebreo)3. Los críticos del siglo XIX consideraban esta idea un disparate. John A. Tvedtnes y Stephen D. Ricks, en "Jewish and Other Semitic Texts Written in Egyptian Characters" (1996), responden movilizando hallazgos epigráficos del siglo XX.

"Non-Latter-day Saint scholars and others have long scoffed at the idea [...] Since Joseph Smith's time, we have learned a great deal about Egyptian and Israelite records and realize that the Book of Mormon was correct in all respects." (Tvedtnes & Ricks, 1996, p. 156)

["Los eruditos no-SUD y otros se han burlado durante mucho tiempo de la idea[...] Desde la época de Joseph Smith, hemos aprendido mucho sobre los registros egipcios e israelitas y nos damos cuenta de que el Libro de Mormón era correcto en todos los aspectos."]

La evidencia incluye el Papiro Amherst 63 (un texto del siglo II a.C. escrito en demótico egipcio pero cuyo idioma subyacente es arameo, incluyendo una versión del Salmo 20), y ostraca de Tel Arad y Kadesh-Barnea donde escribas israelitas mezclaban escritura jerática egipcia con texto hebreo.

"The implication is clear: Scribes or students contemporary or nearly contemporary with Lehi were being trained in both Hebrew and Egyptian writing systems. The use of Egyptian script by Lehi's descendants now becomes not only plausible, but perfectly reasonable..." (Tvedtnes & Ricks, 1996, p. 160)

["La implicación es clara: Los escribas o estudiantes contemporáneos o casi contemporáneos con Lehi estaban siendo entrenados tanto en sistemas de escritura hebreos como egipcios. El uso de escritura egipcia por los descendientes de Lehi ahora se vuelve no solo plausible, sino perfectamente razonable..."]

Nótese el movimiento argumentativo: de la "plausibilidad" se pasa a lo "perfectamente razonable". El artículo no demuestra que el "egipcio reformado" del Libro de Mormón sea idéntico a las prácticas documentadas; solo demuestra que la idea general de escribir una lengua semítica con caracteres egipcios no es anacrónica. Es importante notar que el Papiro Amherst 63 es un ejemplo de arameo en demótico, no de "egipcio reformado" per se, pero la apologética opera por analogía tipológica, no por identidad histórica. Para el lector SUD, esta analogía es suficiente: se ha eliminado una objeción, se ha abierto un espacio de verosimilitud.

4. El análisis estilométrico y la atribución de autoría profética

Uno de los artículos más ambiciosos en términos de metodología cuantitativa es "Joseph Smith, the Times and Seasons, and Central American Ruins" (Roper, Fields & Nepal, 2013). Los autores utilizan análisis de wordprint (huella estilística) para determinar si Joseph Smith fue el autor de cinco editoriales publicados en 1842 que vinculaban ruinas centroamericanas con ciudades del Libro de Mormón (Palenque con Zarahemla, etc.).

"The premise behind wordprint studies is that an author has a unique style of writing and that his or her written work can be identified by a stylistic fingerprint discernible in a document as evidenced by his or her choice of words." (Roper et al., 2013, p. 91)

["La premisa detrás de los estudios de wordprint es que un autor tiene un estilo único de escritura y que su trabajo escrito puede ser identificado por una huella estilística discernible en un documento como lo evidencia su elección de palabras."]

El análisis concluye que los editoriales se agrupan estadísticamente con los textos conocidos de Smith, y que es "el autor más probable". La relevancia apologética es clara: si Smith escribió o autorizó esos editoriales, entonces sus afirmaciones geográficas (Centroamérica como escenario del Libro de Mormón) adquieren peso doctrinal.

Aquí el régimen híbrido alcanza uno de sus momentos más complejos. Por un lado, se emplea una técnica estadística desarrollada en lingüística forense, con funciones discriminantes que clasifican correctamente al autor en más del 98% de los casos. Por otro lado, la pregunta de investigación está determinada por una necesidad confesional: demostrar que la geografía mesoamericana no es una interpretación tardía sino una enseñanza profética. El artículo mantiene la forma de la ciencia (datos, métodos, gráficos, cautelas) pero su función es legitimar una autoridad religiosa.

Cabe señalar que la estilometría aplicada a textos religiosos traducidos o de autoría disputada es altamente controvertida en la comunidad académica secular, debido a problemas de segmentación del texto, tamaño de la muestra y el llamado "efecto del traductor". Sin embargo, esta controversia rara vez se menciona en la apologética SUD, lo que refuerza el argumento de que la ciencia se utiliza selectivamente para construir plausibilidad interna, no consenso externo.

5. La gestión de la evidencia espuria: Falsificaciones y rigor

Una estrategia distintiva de la apologética académica SUD es la refutación proactiva de evidencia débil o falsa. John Gee, en "New and Old Light on Shawabtis from Mesoamerica" (1997), demuestra que dos figurillas egipcias tipo ushabti, supuestamente descubiertas en El Salvador en 1914 y presentadas como prueba de contacto transoceánico, son falsificaciones modernas4. Gee muestra que son idénticas en forma, defectos e inscripciones a falsificaciones conocidas publicadas por egiptólogos alemanes en 1906.

"While the news that the figurines are forgeries might strike some as disappointing, it is important that only real evidence be used in discussing the Book of Mormon. Mormons [...] should insist on eliminating forged evidence from the discussion." (Gee, 1997, p. 67)

["Aunque la noticia de que las figurillas son falsificaciones podría parecer decepcionante para algunos, es importante que solo se use evidencia real al discutir el Libro de Mormón. Los mormones [...] deben insistir en eliminar la evidencia falsificada de la discusión."]

Esta jugada es inteligente. Al descartar activamente evidencia espuria, los apologetas SUD demuestran integridad metodológica y se diferencian de los entusiastas acríticos. Además, establecen un estándar de exigencia que luego puede ser usado para criticar a quienes presentan pruebas débiles a favor de otras posiciones. Es una forma de capital epistemológico: mostramos que somos rigurosos, por lo tanto, cuando presentamos evidencia positiva, ustedes deben tomarla en serio.

El paralelo con las falsificaciones de Mark Hofmann (mencionado explícitamente por Gee) no es casual. La comunidad SUD sufrió un trauma con Hofmann, y la respuesta ha sido una cultura de verificación y escepticismo interno que paradójicamente fortalece la credibilidad del campo.

El que se mencione a Mark Hofmann no es algo casual, ya que él fue un falsificador de documentos históricos y asesino estadounidense, activo principalmente en la década de 1980 en Salt Lake City, Utah. Hofmann creó y vendió a la Iglesia SUD, a instituciones históricas y a coleccionistas privados decenas de documentos falsificados de extraordinaria sofisticación. Estos documentos supuestamente reescribían o complicaban los orígenes del mormonismo. El más famoso fue la "Carta de la Salamandra" (1983), que sugería que Joseph Smith había encontrado el Libro de Mormón con la ayuda de un espíritu mágico con forma de salamandra, en lugar de un ángel divino, alineando así los orígenes SUD con el folclore mágico y popular de la época en lugar de con la revelación divina. Para evitar ser descubierto cuando sus falsificaciones comenzaron a ser cuestionadas por expertos, y para escapar de una enorme deuda financiera, Hofmann cometió dos atentados con bomba en octubre de 1985 que resultaron en la muerte de dos personas, antes de ser arrestado y confesar sus crímenes. El "caso Hofmann" es una pieza clave para entender la evolución de la apologética académica SUD y el "régimen híbrido" descrito en el ensayo, por tres razones principales:

  1. Trauma y crisis de credibilidad: El escándalo expuso cuán vulnerables eran los coleccionistas e historiadores SUD a aceptar artefactos que confirmaban (o desafiaban dramáticamente) sus creencias, generando una profunda desconfianza institucional hacia cualquier "hallazgo milagroso" no verificado;

  2. Catalizador de rigor metodológico: Como respuesta directa al fraude, las instituciones académicas SUD (como la antigua FARMS, hoy integrada en el Neal A. Maxwell Institute de la Universidad Brigham Young) se vieron obligadas a adoptar protocolos de autenticación forense, química y histórica mucho más estrictos. Ya no podían permitirse el lujo de la credulidad;

  3. Construcción de "capital epistemológico": Al rechazar activamente evidencia espuria (incluso cuando esa evidencia falsa podría parecer favorable a su causa a primera vista), los apologetas SUD demuestran integridad metodológica. Envían el mensaje de que no son fanáticos crédulos, sino críticos rigurosos. Esta postura paradójicamente fortalece la credibilidad de la evidencia "real" que sí deciden presentar (como los mapas de Nahom o los paralelos lingüísticos), pues el lector asume que dicha evidencia ha sobrevivido a un filtro científico implacable.

    En resumen, Hofmann5 representa la sombra del fraude que la apologética académica SUD moderna debe trabajar constantemente para demostrar que ha superado mediante el rigor científico.

6. La epistemología del régimen híbrido: Entre la fe y la ciencia

A partir de los casos examinados, es posible reconstruir las reglas implícitas que gobiernan este régimen híbrido:

Regla 1: La fe como marco, no como conclusión. La historicidad del Libro de Mormón no es una hipótesis que se prueba o refuta, sino una premisa revelada que organiza la investigación. La ciencia puede apoyar o no contradecir, pero no puede fundamentar últimamente la creencia. Como señalan Pike y Seely (2005):

"All students of the Book of Mormon should understand [...] the role that one's faith plays in one's approach to and interpretation of textual evidence." (Pike & Seely, 2005, p. 25)

["Todos los estudiantes del Libro de Mormón deben entende [...] el papel que juega la fe de uno en el enfoque e interpretación de la evidencia textual."]

Regla 2: La convergencia como estándar de plausibilidad. No se exige una prueba única e incontrovertible, sino la acumulación de múltiples líneas de evidencia independientes que convergen hacia la misma conclusión. Clark (2005) lo formula como un argumento de improbabilidad: cuanto más bajo es el cálculo de que Joseph Smith pudiera haber adivinado o inventado, más fuerte es la inferencia de revelación.

Regla 3: La humildad epistémica como escudo. Los autores reconocen sistemáticamente las limitaciones del registro arqueológico ("menos del 1% de los sitios mesoamericanos han sido excavados"), la provisionalidad de las interpretaciones y la posibilidad de error. Esta humildad no es una debilidad, sino una inmunización estratégica: si no se encuentra evidencia, se debe a la incompletitud del registro; si se encuentra, es confirmación.

Regla 4: El texto como árbitro final. A pesar de la apelación a la ciencia, el criterio último de validación es interno al texto sagrado. Clark, en su trabajo seminal de 1994 y reiterado en publicaciones posteriores, es explícito:

"The Book of Mormon must be the final and most important arbiter in deciding the correctness of a given geography; otherwise we will be forever hostage to the shifting sands of expert opinion." (Clark, 1994/2011, p. 14)

["El Libro de Mormón debe ser el árbitro final y más importante para decidir la corrección de una geografía dada; de lo contrario, seremos para siempre rehenes de las arenas movedizas de la opinión experta."]

Esta regla invierte la relación convencional entre teoría y evidencia. En la ciencia normal, las teorías se ajustan a los hechos; aquí, los hechos se interpretan para ajustarse al texto.

Regla 5: La distinción entre "prueba" y "plausibilidad". Los autores evitan sistemáticamente afirmar que la ciencia "prueba" el Libro de Mormón. En su lugar, hablan de "convergencia", "correspondencia", "plausibilidad", "consistencia". Esta cautela terminológica es crucial: mantiene la puerta abierta a la fe como fuente última de certeza, al tiempo que reclama para la ciencia un papel de confirmación secundaria.

Conclusión: El Régimen Híbrido como Objeto Antropológico

La apologética académica SUD que emerge de estas publicaciones no es ni "ciencia disfrazada" ni "fe ingenua". Es un régimen híbrido de producción de verdad que opera según una lógica doble: externamente, adopta la forma de la ciencia (citas, datos, métodos estadísticos, cautelas metodológicas); internamente, está orientado por premisas confesionales que no se negocian ni se someten a falsación empírica.

Para el observador secular, este régimen puede parecer contradictorio o incluso deshonesto. Pero desde una perspectiva antropológica, es un objeto fascinante: muestra cómo una comunidad religiosa puede apropiarse del prestigio y los métodos de la ciencia sin abandonar su marco de autoridad revelada. Desde esta perspectiva, la ciencia no es una amenaza, sino un recurso: proporciona un lenguaje para hablar de la historicidad del texto sagrado en términos que resuenan en la academia, al tiempo que la fe sigue siendo el ancla última.

La pregunta que este régimen plantea no es si sus afirmaciones son "verdaderas" o "falsas" en términos positivistas, sino qué trabajo cultural realiza en la pretensión por mantener una fe que nación de afirmaciones indemostrables. Y la respuesta parece ser: permite a los miembros SUD participar del discurso académico moderno sin tener que elegir entre su identidad religiosa y su compromiso con la racionalidad. Es un puente entre dos mundos (el de la fe y el de la ciencia) que, como todo puente, sostiene el tránsito en ambas direcciones, pero no elimina la distancia.


Referencias Bibliográficas

  1. Chadwick, J. R. (2006). An archaeologist's view. Journal of Book of Mormon Studies, 15(2), 68–77, 122–124.

  2. Clark, J. E. (1994). A key for evaluating Book of Mormon geographies. FARMS Review of Books, 6(1), 1–52.

  3. Clark, J. E. (2005). Archaeology, relics, and Book of Mormon belief. Journal of Book of Mormon Studies, 14(2), 38–59.

  4. Clark, J. E. (2011). Revisiting "A Key for Evaluating Book of Mormon Geographies". Mormon Studies Review, 23(1), 13–43.

  5. Gee, J. (1997). New and old light on shawabtis from Mesoamerica. Journal of Book of Mormon Studies, 6(1), 64–69.

  6. Gee, J. (2008). The Nahom maps. Journal of the Book of Mormon and Restoration Scripture, 17(1–2), 40–57.

  7. Hull, K. (2015). War banners: A Mesoamerican context for the title of liberty. Journal of Book of Mormon Studies, 24, 84–118.

  8. Pike, D. M., & Seely, D. R. (2005). "Upon all the ships of the sea, and upon all the ships of Tarshish": Revisiting 2 Nephi 12:16 and Isaiah 2:16. Journal of Book of Mormon Studies, 14(2), 12–25.

  9. Roper, M., Fields, P. J., & Nepal, A. (2013). Joseph Smith, the Times and Seasons, and Central American ruins. Journal of the Book of Mormon and Restoration Scripture, 22(2), 84–97.

  10. Tvedtnes, J. A., & Ricks, S. D. (1996). Jewish and other Semitic texts written in Egyptian characters. Journal of Book of Mormon Studies, 5(2), 156–163.

  11. Wirth, D. E. (2002). Quetzalcoatl, the Maya Maize God, and Jesus Christ. Journal of Book of Mormon Studies, 11(1), 4–15, 107.


Notas

  1. El pasaje en cuestión dice: “Y ocurrió que reanudamos nuestra jornada, viajando aproximadamente en la misma dirección que tomamos al principio; y después de haber viajado por el espacio de muchos días, plantamos nuestras tiendas de nuevo para permanecer allí algún tiempo. Y aconteció que murió Ismael, y fue enterrado en el lugar llamado Nahom.”↩

  2. El pasaje dice “Y sucedió, también, que hizo que se enarbolara el estandarte de la libertad sobre todas las torres que se hallaban en toda la tierra que poseían los nefitas; y así, Moroni plantó el estandarte de la libertad entre los nefitas”. (Cursivas agregadas). Sin embargo, para mayor contexto lingüístico (dado que el análisis de Kerry Hull se basa en la estructura del texto original en inglés y su paralelismo con el maya), la versión en inglés de este versículo es: "And it came to pass also, that he caused the title of liberty to be hoisted upon every tower which was in all the land, which was possessed by the Nephites; and thus Moroni planted the standard of liberty among the Nephites." (Negritas agregadas). Cabe anotar que ese versículo utiliza dos verbos de acción distintos pero semánticamente vinculados en la misma oración: "enarbolara" (hoisted/raised) y "plantó" (planted), ambos aplicados al mismo objeto ("el estandarte de la libertad" / "the standard of liberty"). Kerry Hull (2015) argumenta que este pareado sinónimo (la repetición de una idea con palabras diferentes en versos o frases consecutivas) no es una coincidencia de la traducción, sino que refleja una estructura poética antigua. Específicamente, la vincula con la frase jeroglífica maya u-tz'apaw u-lakam-tuun, donde tz'apaw puede significar tanto "plantar" como "enarbolar/erguir", y lakam-tuun se traduce como "piedra-estandarte" o "estela". Así, se supone, el texto del Libro de Mormón vendría a reproducir inadvertidamente una fórmula lingüística y poética específica de la antigua Mesoamérica.↩

  3. En el Libro de Mormón, el término específico "egipcio reformado" aparece explícitamente en un solo versículo. Sin embargo, hay otros pasajes estrechamente relacionados que explican el contexto y la razón de su uso. La mención explícita del "egipcio reformado" es en Mormón 9:32: "Y he aquí, hemos escrito estos anales según nuestro conocimiento, en los caracteres que entre nosotros se llaman egipcio reformado; y los hemos transmitido y alterado conforme a nuestra manera de hablar. Los versículos siguientes explican por qué se optó por este sistema de escritura en lugar del hebreo, lo cual es el punto de partida de los argumentos apologéticos lingüísticos. Mormón 9:33-34: "Y si nuestras planchas hubiesen sido suficientemente amplias, habríamos escrito en hebreo; pero también hemos alterado el hebreo; y si hubiésemos podido escribir en hebreo, he aquí, no habríais tenido ninguna imperfección en nuestros anales. Pero el Señor sabe las cosas que hemos escrito, y también que ningún otro pueblo conoce nuestra lengua; y por motivo de que ningún otro pueblo conoce nuestra lengua, por lo tanto, él ha preparado los medios para su interpretación.” Y en 1 de Nefi 1:2: "Sí, hago la relación en el lenguaje de mi padre, que se compone de la ciencia de los judíos y el idioma de los egipcios. Estos pasajes son la base sobre la cual artículos como el de Tvedtnes y Ricks (1996) construyen su argumento. Como se señaló , la apologética no afirma que el "egipcio reformado" del Libro de Mormón sea idéntico a un sistema jeroglífico egipcio estándar conocido por la egiptología secular. En su lugar, utiliza estos versículos para argumentar una analogía tipológica: dado que existen casos documentados en la antigüedad (como el Papiro Amherst 63 o los ostraca de Tel Arad) donde se usaron caracteres egipcios para escribir lenguas semíticas (arameo/hebreo), la afirmación de Mormón 9:32 de haber "alterado" los caracteres "conforme a nuestra manera de hablar" se presenta como históricamente plausible, aunque no verificable de manera directa.↩

  4. Las ushabti (también escritas como shabti o shawabti) son pequeñas figurillas funerarias que formaban parte del ajuar de las tumbas en el antiguo Egipto. Su nombre proviene del verbo egipcio wšb, que significa "responder" o "contestar"; por lo tanto, se les conoce como "los que responden". En la religión del antiguo Egipto, se creía que el difunto, al llegar al más allá (el Aaru o Campo de Juncos), podría ser llamado por el dios Osiris para realizar trabajos agrícolas pesados, como cavar canales o cultivar la tierra. La función principal de la ushabti era actuar como un sirviente sustituto: cuando se hiciera el llamado, la figurilla "respondería" diciendo: "Aquí estoy", y realizaría el trabajo en lugar del difunto. Generalmente presentaban forma de momia, con los brazos cruzados sobre el pecho. A menudo se las representa sosteniendo herramientas agrícolas, como azadas o cestos para semillas, pintadas o talladas en sus manos. La mayoría lleva grabado o pintado el Capítulo 6 del Libro de los Muertos (el "Hechizo del Ushabti"), que contiene la fórmula mágica para activar su función, junto con el nombre y los títulos del difunto.Se fabricaban con una gran variedad de materiales, desde faenza (cerámica vidriada, la más común), madera y piedra, hasta bronce o vidrio, dependiendo de la riqueza del difunto. Las tumbas de faraones y nobles podían contener cientos o incluso miles de estas figurillas (a veces organizadas en "cuadrillas" de diez trabajadores supervisados por una ushabti capataz). A principios del siglo XX, surgieron afirmaciones de que se habían descubierto figurillas tipo ushabti en El Salvador (supuestamente en 1914). Para algunos entusiastas de las teorías de contacto transoceánico precolombino (y algunos apologetas tempranos menos rigurosos), esto se presentó como una "prueba contundente" de que egipcios o israelitas habían llegado a América antes de Colón, lo que supuestamente apoyaría las narrativas del Libro de Mormón. Sin embargo, John Gee demostró que estas figurillas eran falsificaciones modernas. Al compararlas con catálogos de egiptólogos alemanes de 1906, Gee probó que las supuestas "reliquias mesoamericanas" eran copias idénticas, incluyendo los mismos defectos de fabricación y errores jeroglíficos, de falsificaciones que ya circulaban en el mercado de antigüedades de Europa. La apologética académica SUD moderna (representada por instituciones como el Neal A. Maxwell Institute o la antigua FARMS) gana credibilidad al descartar activamente pruebas falsas o débiles que podrían beneficiar su causa a corto plazo. Al exponer las ushabtis de El Salvador como fraudes, Gee establece un estándar de rigor: la comunidad SUD prefiere basar sus argumentos en analogías tipológicas plausibles (como el Papiro Amherst 63 o los mapas de Nahom) que en "pruebas milagrosas" que no resisten un escrutinio científico real.↩

  5. Al respecto es muy instructivo el documental de Netflix "Murder Among the Mormons" ( "Asesinato entre los mormones") de 2021↩

11/10/2026

The Greek That Betrays Paul’s Non-Jewish Origin



There is a test that is carried out with the ear and not with the curriculum vitae: that of the calque. Whoever thinks in one language and writes in another leaves in the second the imprint of the first, and whoever was formed in Yerushalayim leaves it in Hebrew and in Aramaic. Those who defend a Paul who was a talmid chakham of Rabban Gamliel HaZaken usually reply that there are indeed Semitisms in his letters. There are; but the right question is not whether there is Semitic colouring, but of what kind: the kind that any reader of the Septuagint acquires without leaving Antioch, or the kind left only by someone who works with Hebrew and Aramaic. To tell them apart a control is needed, and an almost perfect one exists: Flavius Josephus, a Jew of Yerushalayim and of priestly family, who wrote in Greek in the same century and whose traces we know. The article proceeds as follows: Josephus as control; three levels of proof; the verdict of the specialists on Paul’s Aramaisms; what Paul does have and where it comes from; the Greek repertoire of his letters (his only quotation of a Greek author, his slogans, his images and his vocabulary); a hypothesis about his Greek; his market Aramaic; and the evidence that causes discomfort. (The comparison of Romans 9 with the Judaeo-Greek (yevanit) and the targumim I carried out in a separate study, and here I take it for granted.)

I. The control: Josephus, a Jew of Yerushalayim who writes in Greek

Josephus brings together what the Pauline case requires. He was born in Yerushalayim, of priestly family; he tells us that at fourteen the chief priests and the leading men of the city consulted him on points of the law, and that at nineteen he began to follow the Pharisees (Vita 9–12). He writes in Greek, from Rome, a generation after Paul. And he tells us how his process went: he composed the War first in his native language, usually understood to be Aramaic, for the “barbarians of the interior” (BJ 1.3), and for the Greek version he availed himself of collaborators (πρὸς τὴν Ἑλληνίδα φωνὴν συνεργοῖς, Against Apion 1.50: “assistants for the Greek tongue”). He confesses that he strove to acquire Greek παιδεία, but that ancestral custom prevented exactness in pronunciation (Ant. 20.263). And he adds what matters most for our case: in his Yerushalayim only those are reckoned wise who know the laws precisely and can interpret the force of the Scriptures, and no esteem is given to one who makes a show of learning the languages of many nations (Ant. 20.264).

With that biography, what traces does his Greek leave? Three kinds. First, explicit Hebrew glosses and etymologies: σάββατα, which he explains as “rest” in the language of the Hebrews (Ant. 1.33); the name of Adam, derived from the Hebrew (Ant. 1.34); and κόρβαν, which he declares to mean “gift of God” (Against Apion 1.167). Second, Semitisms of semantic field and of formula (εἰρήνη as shalom, ἔλεος as chesed, δικαιοσύνη as tzedaqah, “sons of Israel”, “to find grace”, “before the Lord”), although research warns that most of these arrive by way of the Septuagint and not through a mental translation of the Hebrew. Third, and most revealing, a Hebrew text of his own: for the height of Goliath, Josephus reads “four cubits and a span” (Ant. 6.171), the figure of the LXX and of 4QSam-a, as against the “six cubits” of the Masoretic Text, and analysis of his paraphrase of Samuel points to a Hebrew source of his own, akin to Qumran and to the Vorlage of the Lucianic recension, but identical with none of them. A man who collated the Hebrew with the Greek, and who wrote a Hellenising Greek with outside help, nevertheless left traces.

As a second control I use the yevanit: the Constantinople Pentateuch (1547), a Judaeo-Greek translation which Dirk Hesseling transcribed in 1897 and which Nicholas de Lange links, by means of fragments from the Genizah, to a tradition of translation reaching back to Late Antiquity. I do not claim an unbroken chain from the first century; it is enough for me that it is the way in which a Greek-speaking Jewish community renders the Torah with the Hebrew before it. It serves as a backdrop, not as proof.

II. Three levels of proof

Not every Semitism proves the same thing, and for that reason I distinguish three levels. Level 1 (semantic fields and formulae that the Septuagint had already created) does not discriminate: any reader of biblical Greek acquires it, whether from Yerushalayim, from Antioch, or as a God-fearing Gentile. Level 2 (direct Hebrew or Aramaic competence: glosses, etymologies, transliterated technical terms, a Hebrew text of one’s own) is left only by someone who works with those languages. Level 3 (the vocabulary and method of the house of study) is left only by someone who passed through it. The table sets the two writers face to face.

MarkerLevelJosephusPaul
Semantic fields of the LXX (εἰρήνη, δικαιοσύνη, σάρξ, πνεῦμα, ψυχή, καρδία, δόξα)1YesYes, the same inventory
Formulae of the LXX (“sons of Israel”, “before the Lord”)1YesYes (2 Cor 3:7; 8:21; υἱοὶ φωτός, 1 Thess 5:5)
Hebrew glosses and etymologies2Yes (Ant. 1.33–34; Against Apion 1.167)None from the Hebrew; only the gloss of one Aramaic word, ἀββὰ ὁ πατήρ
Transliterated technical terms of cult or law2Yes (σάββατα, κόρβαν)None; only loanwords already fixed in the LXX (πάσχα, ἀμήν)
A Hebrew text of his own2Yes (Goliath, Ant. 6.171)Not demonstrable: he cites Greek forms, sometimes reworked
Vocabulary and method of the house of study3Claims priestly and Pharisaic formation (Vita 9–12)Calls himself a Pharisee (Phil 3:5), but with no teacher, no school formula and no technical term

At level 1 they are indistinguishable, and for that reason level 1 proves nothing about either of the two. Josephus, even when Hellenising with outside help, leaves traces at level 2. Paul, who never apologises for his Greek, leaves none, neither at 2 nor at 3. The table measures, then, what Paul lacks; section V measures what he has in abundance.

III. The verdict of the specialists on Paul’s Aramaisms

The search for Aramaisms in Paul has its classic study: W. C. van Unnik, “Aramaisms in Paul”, in Sparsa Collecta I (Leiden: Brill, 1973), pp. 129–143. Joseph A. Fitzmyer, the Aramaist who has thought most about method (A Wandering Aramean, 1979), judges that this attempt did not succeed in establishing secure Aramaisms in the letters. His conclusion is twofold: Paul’s Greek is affected by that of the Septuagint, but that makes it neither deficient Greek nor a literal translation of Aramaic.

There is a method behind that verdict. To maintain that a Greek text conceals an Aramaic substratum, three things must be shown: that the Greek is unnatural where the Aramaic would explain it; that the retroversion produces natural Aramaic; and that this Aramaic has parallels in the language of the period (Qumran, Bar Kokhba, Nabataean Aramaic). Raymond Martin systematised the criteria for distinguishing translation Greek from composition Greek (Syntactical Evidence of Semitic Sources in Greek Documents, 1974), and, according to the bibliography, its application to the Pauline corpus has not produced a robust set of syntactic calques attributable to a Semitic language. Stanley Porter has reached a similar conclusion from the Greek side: the letters are colloquial and literary Hellenistic Greek, not translated Greek.

To this is added a problem of nomenclature. “Mishnaic Hebrew” as such is later than Paul; what existed in the first century is a vernacular proto-Mishnaic Hebrew, visible in the Qumran scrolls (4QMMT, the Copper Scroll) and confirmed by the Bar Kokhba letters (c. 132–135). The question can be put without anachronism: does Paul’s Greek show interference from that Hebrew or from the Aramaic of Judaea? The answer of the critics is that it almost never does, and never demonstrably as a direct calque. That silence weighs more heavily because the control, Josephus, does speak.

IV. What Paul does have, and where it comes from

It would be dishonest to say that Paul has no Semitic colouring. He has it, and it is the same that Josephus has at level 1: ψυχή, καρδία, σάρξ, πνεῦμα, δόξα, δικαιοσύνη, ἔλεος. But nobody needs to know Hebrew to speak in this way: the Greek of the Septuagint had already loaded those words with the semantic field of נֶפֶשׁ, לֵב, בָּשָׂר, רוּחַ, כָּבוֹד, צְדָקָה and חֶסֶד. The case of δικαιοσύνη sums up the point: in Paul the word oscillates between “justice” and “saving vindication”, and that oscillation is documented in biblical Greek before him. There remain the candidates for direct interference, and they are few: υἱοὶ φωτός (1 Thess 5:5, “sons of light”), with a parallel in the Hebrew of Qumran (בני אור); ἔργα νόμου (Gal 2:16, “works of the law”), with its Qumranic counterpart (מעשי התורה, 4QMMT); and the metaphorical use of περιπατεῖν (“to walk”) for conduct, which goes back to הלך. The three share two features. None is rabbinic: the Hebrew parallels are in Qumran, not in the Mishnah. And none requires a Hebrew speaker: they are formulae of a Jewish piety that circulated in Greek. The same reading holds for what is called the “tannaitic method” in Romans 4, the linking of Gen 15:6 with Ps 32:2 by means of λογίζομαι: it is a verbal analogy that does not require rabbinic training (Daube and Lieberman showed long ago that the middot themselves have Hellenistic rhetorical parallels), and it is a hermeneutical influence, not a grammatical calque.

So far, what Paul shares with any reader of the Septuagint. What remains is what he shares with the world that surrounded him.

V. The Greek repertoire of the letters

Up to this point I have measured what Paul does not leave; this section measures what he does leave, and it is worth saying first how to read it. Almost nothing of what follows can be proved foreign to Judaism: a Hellenistic Jew could have known a good part of it, and almost every Greek parallel has also a possible biblical background. What I maintain is a direction, not a demonstration: when Paul looks for a quotation, a slogan, an image or a legal term, he finds it in the Greek of the school, of the street and of the forum, and where a Hebrew origin has been sought, the parallel is later than Paul or is disputed. I speak, therefore, of echoes and parallels, not of sources.

A single quotation from a Greek author (1 Cor 15:33). In the seven undisputed letters there is a single explicit quotation from a Greek author commonly recognised: φθείρουσιν ἤθη χρηστὰ ὁμιλίαι κακαί (“bad company corrupts good character”). It is the only iambic trimeter in the letters, and Paul probably knew it from a collection of popular maxims and not from having read the comedy. It is attributed to Menander’s Thais, who perhaps took it from Euripides, but that attribution should be weighed: it rests on a scholion now lost and on three Syriac manuscripts of the Eutalian apparatus (fourth century), and Derek Spears (Oxford) judges it unreliable, because the Greek sources do not name the work. What is not disputed is the verse itself, unanimous in the manuscripts. The context also counts: the “let us eat and drink” of v. 32 is Isaiah 22:13 in the Septuagint, not a classic, so that Scripture and trimeter arrive in the same language and almost in the same breath, with a μὴ πλανᾶσθε (“do not be deceived”) as the only warning. Paul, who in no letter cites a master of Israel, settles this moral admonition with a Greek proverb.

What other hands lend him. The other celebrated quotations are not in the undisputed letters. Titus 1:12, Κρῆτες ἀεὶ ψεῦσται, κακὰ θηρία, γαστέρες ἀργαί (“Cretans, always liars, evil beasts, idle bellies”), which Jerome attributes to Epimenides and whose first half Callimachus places in his Hymn to Zeus (v. 8), belongs to one of the Pastorals, widely held to be pseudepigraphic, and therefore does not count as Paul. In Acts, which Luke narrates, the Areopagus speech (17:28) brings τοῦ γὰρ καὶ γένος ἐσμέν (“for we too are his offspring”), an expression that appears in Aratus (Phaenomena 5) and in a hymn to Zeus by Cleanthes, whereas the first half, “in him we live and move”, probably comes from Epimenides; and in 26:14 the Heavenly Voice says σκληρόν σοι πρὸς κέντρα λακτίζειν (“it is hard for you to kick against the goads”), a Greek proverb attested in Pindar, Aeschylus and Euripides. D. MacDonald has studied imitations of Euripides’ Bacchae in Acts; T. McDaniel proposes instead that Luke translated a Hebrew phrase. It is striking, moreover, that Luke puts this proverb in the mouth of a Heavenly Voice which, according to him, speaks “in the Hebrew language” (Ἑβραΐδι διαλέκτῳ): the Greek of the proverb is, in any case, the narrator’s. Luke gives Paul at once the Hebrew teacher (Gamliel) and the Greek poets; the letters, which we can actually read, give him a single verse and no rabbi as master.

Echoes that are not quotations. Beyond that verse there are echoes, and they should be called by that name. Theissen and Stowers place Rom 7:15–24 (οὐ γὰρ ὃ θέλω τοῦτο πράσσω, ἀλλ᾽ ὃ μισῶ τοῦτο ποιῶ, “for what I want, this I do not do, but what I hate, this I do”) in the Greek tradition of moral psychology that begins with Euripides’ Medea (1077–80); against this, Huggins maintains in the Westminster Theological Journal that the classical parallels alleged (Ovid, Euripides) are not valid. The formula ἐξ αὐτοῦ καὶ δι᾽ αὐτοῦ καὶ εἰς αὐτόν (Rom 11:36; cf. 1 Cor 8:6, “from him and through him and to him”) is read by van Kooten as a Greek metaphysical formula and Paul as a Stoic, while Sterling prefers a Platonic sense. In the general panorama, Malherbe showed that Paul knew the moral discourse of Cynics and Stoics without needing to have read, for example, Chrysippus, and Engberg-Pedersen goes further and sees central Stoic ideas; even so, the direct allusions are few, and I do not pretend they are more. What matters here is the terrain of the discussion: it is played out, essentially, between Medea and Epictetus, between Plato and the Stoa, and not between Hebrew and Aramaic calques.

Slogans of the street and of the school. “All things are lawful for me” (1 Cor 6:12; 10:23), Πάντα μοι ἔξεστιν· ἀλλ᾽ οὐ πάντα συμφέρει (“All things are lawful for me, but not all things are beneficial”), with its companion Πάντα ἔξεστιν· ἀλλ᾽ οὐ πάντα οἰκοδομεῖ (“All things are lawful, but not all things build up”), is for the commentators a Corinthian slogan; Winter shows that it was an ancient maxim of the powerful, which can be read in Polybius and in Dio Chrysostom, and Conzelmann sees possible Cynic-Stoic echoes. More revealing is μὴ γένοιτο (“by no means!”), in μὴ γένοιτο· γινέσθω δὲ ὁ θεὸς ἀληθής (Rom 3:4, “By no means! Let God be true”) and in μὴ γένοιτο· οἵτινες ἀπεθάνομεν τῇ ἁμαρτίᾳ, πῶς ἔτι ζήσομεν ἐν αὐτῇ; (Rom 6:2, “By no means! We who died to sin, how shall we still live in it?”). As a retort within a dialogue, according to Malherbe, it is found only in Epictetus and Paul, and it forms part of the repertoire of the diatribe, together with the ὦ ἄνθρωπε (“O man”) of Rom 2:1 and the Τί οὖν ἐροῦμεν; (“What then shall we say?”) of Rom 7:7 (Bultmann, Stowers). Someone will object that the Septuagint renders חָלִילָה with that same expression. That is true, and it would be a level-1 finding: a formula inherited from biblical Greek, not a mental translation of the Hebrew. What Malherbe points to is the usage: an imaginary interlocutor who objects and receives his μὴ γένοιτο is the form of the philosophical school.

Greeks and barbarians, and the three pairs of Galatians. In Rom 1:14, Ἕλλησίν τε καὶ βαρβάροις, σοφοῖς τε καὶ ἀνοήτοις ὀφειλέτης εἰμί (“I am a debtor both to Greeks and to barbarians, both to the wise and to the foolish”), the classification is Greek and Paul adopts that point of view, not that of Israel and the goyim. Gal 3:28:

οὐκ ἔνι Ἰουδαῖος οὐδὲ Ἕλλην, οὐκ ἔνι δοῦλος οὐδὲ ἐλεύθερος, οὐκ ἔνι ἄρσεν καὶ θῆλυ

(“there is no Jew nor Greek, no slave nor free, no male and female”)

has a Greek parallel: Diogenes Laertius (1.33), who refers to Hermippus (third century BCE), attributes to Thales and to Socrates a threefold thanksgiving:

πρῶτον μὲν ὅτι ἄνθρωπος ἐγενόμην καὶ οὐ θηρίον, εἶτα ὅτι ἀνὴρ καὶ οὐ γυνή, τρίτον ὅτι Ἕλλην καὶ οὐ βάρβαρος

(“first, that I was born a human being and not a beast; then, a man and not a woman; third, a Greek and not a barbarian”).

It must also be noted that the rabbis knew their own threefold formula of blessings. According to a baraita transmitted in the name of R. Meir (Menachot 43b), the original text is:

«שֶׁלֹּא עֲשָׂאַנִי גּוֹי, שֶׁלֹּא עֲשָׂאַנִי אִשָּׁה, שֶׁלֹּא עֲשָׂאַנִי בּוּר»

(“that He did not make me a gentile, that He did not make me a woman, that He did not make me an ignoramus [bur]”).

It is precisely the Talmud that records the substitution of “ignoramus” (בּוּר) by “slave” (עֶבֶד), when Rav Acha bar Ya’akov hears his son bless with the formula of R. Meir and objects: “Even that?”, pointing out that “slave” is already implied in “woman”, since his legal status is equivalent. This internal discussion reveals that the threefold form שלא עשני גוי / עבד / אישה is not the original version of R. Meir but a later reformulation with a different juridical logic. That Paul (Gal 3:28) enunciates a similar triad (Greek/Jew, slave/free, man/woman) may reflect an ancient and widespread typology, but the divergence in the third term (בּוּר as against עֶבֶד) and Paul’s theological inversion (“there is no...”, as against the rabbinic thanksgiving “that He did not make me...”) make it impossible to postulate literary dependence in either direction. The only thing that can be affirmed is that the scheme of three pairs, with male and female at the end, was already circulating in Greek, as Diogenes Laertius transmits it, before Paul wrote it.

Beasts, nurse and gain. Malherbe reads εἰ κατὰ ἄνθρωπον ἐθηριομάχησα ἐν Ἐφέσῳ, τί μοι τὸ ὄφελος; (1 Cor 15:32, “if, speaking as a man, I fought with beasts at Ephesus, what is the benefit to me?”) as a metaphorical emulation of the labours of Heracles, and the nurse of 1 Thess 2:7, ὡς ἐὰν τροφὸς θάλπῃ τὰ ἑαυτῆς τέκνα (“as a nurse cherishes her own children”), as a Cynic precept. The reading of the nurse is disputed. 1 Thess 2:7 has a textual variant, νήπιοι (“infants”) or ἤπιοι (“gentle”), which changes the image: according to Fowl, almost all commentators read ἤπιοι, although the committee of the Greek text gave νήπιοι a grade C; and Schreiner believes that Malherbe underestimates the Old Testament and Jewish background. “To die is gain” (Phil 1:21, Ἐμοὶ γὰρ τὸ ζῆν Χριστὸς καὶ τὸ ἀποθανεῖν κέρδος, “For to me, to live is Xristos and to die is gain”) is a sharper case, though it remains a parallel: it was a current idea, and Sophocles’ Antigone says κέρδος αὔτ᾽ ἐγὼ λέγω (“that, I say, is gain”, 461–62), and Plato’s Socrates, θαυμάσιον κέρδος ἂν εἴη ὁ θάνατος (“death would be a wonderful gain”, Apol. 40c–d); Palmer maintains that Paul resonates here with a contemporary philosophical discourse.

Images from public life. Paul’s images come from the Graeco-Roman public square. In 1 Cor 9:24–27 he runs and boxes, οὕτως τρέχω ὡς οὐκ ἀδήλως, οὕτως πυκτεύω ὡς οὐκ ἀέρα δέρων (“so I run, not aimlessly; so I box, not as one beating the air”), in a letter addressed to the city that hosted the Isthmian Games, and the vocabulary is athletic: στάδιον, βραβεῖον, συναθλέω (Phil 1:27; 4:3). In 2 Cor 2:14, τῷ δὲ θεῷ χάρις τῷ πάντοτε θριαμβεύοντι ἡμᾶς ἐν τῷ Χριστῷ (“but thanks be to God, who always leads us in triumph in Xristos”), there is a Roman triumph in which, according to Hafemann, Paul does not march as victor but as a captive led to death, a reading that Hock questions. In 1 Cor 12:12, the body which is one and has many members recalls the fable of Menenius Agrippa, who pleaded for concord with the plebs (Livy 2.32, in Latin); research largely accepts a direct or indirect influence, but Paul uses the material to undo hierarchies. The catalogues of hardships (2 Cor 4:8, ἐν παντὶ θλιβόμενοι ἀλλ᾽ οὐ στενοχωρούμενοι, ἀπορούμενοι ἀλλ᾽ οὐκ ἐξαπορούμενοι, “in everything afflicted but not crushed, perplexed but not driven to despair”) were the genre in which the Stoics boasted of their endurance, and Fitzgerald studied it thoroughly; and the “fool’s speech” (2 Cor 11:1, Ὄφελον ἀνείχεσθέ μου μικρόν τι ἀφροσύνης, “I wish you would bear with me in a little foolishness”) has been compared with the braggart, the ἀλαζών, of the Greek mimes (Windisch) and with Plutarch’s treatise on self-praise (Mitchell, Forbes).

Political and legal vocabulary. εὐαγγέλιον is found in the Priene calendar inscription (9 BCE), which calls the birth of Augustus “good tidings”:

ἦρξεν δὲ τῷ κόσμῳ τῶν δι᾽ αὐτὸν εὐαγγελίων ἡ γενέθλιος ἡμέρα τοῦ θεοῦ.

“The birthday of the god was for the world the beginning of the good tidings (euangelia, εὐαγγελίων) that came on his account.”

But Paul knew Isaiah as well (Rom 10:15), so the word does not discriminate. Of ἀπάντησις (1 Thess 4:17, εἰς ἀπάντησιν τοῦ κυρίου εἰς ἀέρα, “to meet the Lord in the air”), Peterson (1930) made the official reception of a dignitary; Cosby, with a concession from Gundry, denies that it is a technical term. σωτήρ and κύριος (Phil 3:20, ἡμῶν γὰρ τὸ πολίτευμα ἐν οὐρανοῖς ὑπάρχει, ἐξ οὗ καὶ σωτῆρα ἀπεκδεχόμεθα κύριον Ἰησοῦν Χριστόν, “for our commonwealth exists in heaven, from which we also await as saviour the Lord Jesus Xristos”) were titles of the imperial cult, although Oakes doubts that πολίτευμα means Roman “citizenship”.

υἱοθεσία (Gal 4:5, ἵνα τὴν υἱοθεσίαν ἀπολάβωμεν, “that we might receive adoption”) and παιδαγωγός (Gal 3:24, ὁ νόμος παιδαγωγὸς ἡμῶν γέγονεν εἰς Χριστόν, “the law has become our pedagogue unto Xristos”) come from ordinary Graeco-Roman institutions, adoption and the slave who accompanies the child. But the παιδαγωγός was also known in Judaism, as a Greek loanword (Longenecker, Young), and Scott weighs the Graeco-Roman and biblical backgrounds of υἱοθεσία. “Bought with a price” (1 Cor 6:20, ἠγοράσθητε γὰρ τιμῆς, “for you were bought with a price”; 7:23) is linked with the sacral manumission of Delphi, ἐπρίατο Ἀπόλλων ὁ Πύθιος παρὰ Σωσιβίου Ἀμφισσέως ἐπ᾽ ἐλευθερίᾳ (“Pythian Apollo bought from Sosibius of Amphissa, for freedom”; cf. Gal 5:13, ἐπ᾽ ἐλευθερίᾳ ἐκλήθητε, “you were called to freedom”), a proposal made by Deissmann and disputed by Lyonnet and Sabourin.

A word without Hebrew (Rom 2:15). The sharpest case is συνείδησις (συμμαρτυρούσης αὐτῶν τῆς συνειδήσεως, “their conscience bearing witness with them”): the Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible) gives it no Hebrew equivalent, and Jewett (1971) described a consensus according to which Paul takes it from popular usage, not from Stoicism. It is a central word of his moral psychology that the Hebrew of the Tanakh cannot give him.

The balance of the repertoire. Almost none of these materials can be proved foreign to Judaism, and in several the biblical background is possible or probable: Isaiah behind εὐαγγέλιον, the παιδαγωγός as an already Jewish loanword, the Tanakh behind the nurse according to Schreiner. I do not claim the contrary. But the list has a property that matters for the thesis: all these resources are Greek or Graeco-Latin in their form, none depends on a Hebrew or Aramaic word, turn of phrase or reading, and in the cases where a Jewish parallel has been invoked, it is either later than Paul (the baraita of R. Meir as against Gal 3:28) or disputed (Schreiner on the nurse). That is the sense of the asymmetry with Josephus: in his Greek one hears Hebrew; in Paul’s one hears Greek, and a pseudo-Hebrew, when it shows itself, is the one that had already passed through the Septuagint.

VI. Where that Greek comes from

I propose a hypothesis, and I call it that because no letter names his city: only Luke (Acts 21:39) and the Ebionites of Epiphanius (Pan. 30.16.6–9) say “Tarsus”, the latter in order to make him the son of Greek parents. The linguistic profile of the letters points to the Cilicia–Syria corridor, Tarsus–Antioch, and to a provincial Greek of three layers.

The Hellenic layer is that of the school. Strabo (14.5.13) places Tarsus above Athens and Alexandria in zeal for philosophy and for the ἐγκύκλιος παιδεία. That Paul received those traditions precisely there is, all the same, speculation: the letters name Cilicia (Gal 1:21), not Tarsus, and I have found no specifically Tarsene expression in Paul. What the letters show is the school, whatever the city, and Paul writes as one who passed through it: climax (κλῖμαξ) as θλῖψις → ὑπομονή → δοκιμή → ἐλπίς (Rom 5:3–4, “tribulation → endurance → proven character → hope”); wordplay on a single root, as in μὴ ὑπερφρονεῖν παρ᾽ ὃ δεῖ φρονεῖν ἀλλὰ φρονεῖν εἰς τὸ σωφρονεῖν (Rom 12:3, “not to think of oneself more highly than one ought, but to think with a view to sound judgement”); chains of alpha-privatives (ἀσυνέτους, ἀσυνθέτους, ἀστόργους, ἀσπόνδους, Rom 1:31: “senseless, faithless, heartless, implacable”); and, in Philemon 20, a textbook optative: ναί, ἀδελφέ, ἐγώ σου ὀναίμην ἐν κυρίῳ (“yes, brother, may I have profit of you in the Lord”), a paronomasia on the name of the slave Ὀνήσιμος (“Profitable”) that no Semitic retroversion survives. To this same environment belong the slogans, images and vocabulary of the previous section.

The Roman layer is that of administration. Cilicia was a Roman province, and Cicero administered justice in Tarsus in 51–50 BCE. Hence the Latinisms with their Latin orthography intact: ἐν μακέλλῳ (1 Cor 10:25, “in the macellum”, with the doubled ll), ἐν ὅλῳ τῷ πραιτωρίῳ (Phil 1:13, “in the whole praetorium”), the names Φουρτουνᾶτος, Κούαρτος and Οὐρβανός, with ου for the Latin u, the pair φόρος / τέλος of Rom 13:7, which reproduces the fiscal distinction between tributum and vectigal, and Σπανία (Rom 15:24, 28), a form without aspiration which reflects spoken Latin as against the literary Ἰβηρία. Alongside it runs a Greek of bookkeeping: εἰς λόγον δόσεως καὶ λήψεως (Phil 4:15, “in the account of giving and receiving”), ἀπέχω δὲ πάντα (Phil 4:18, “I have received everything”), the receipt formula of the papyri, and in Philemon 18–19 τοῦτο ἐμοὶ ἐλλόγει (“charge this to my account”) together with ἐγὼ Παῦλος ἔγραψα τῇ ἐμῇ χειρί, ἐγὼ ἀποτίσω (“I, Paul, wrote it with my own hand; I will repay”), which is the χειρόγραφον, the promissory note. This layer should not be inflated: Cadbury counts only two Latin words in Paul, πραιτώριον (Phil 1:13) and μάκελλον (1 Cor 10:25). It weighs less by the number of loanwords than by the world it reveals: a province, a treasury and a market.

The barbarian layer, in the sense that the Greeks gave to the term, is the Semitic substratum of that same frontier, and the following section deals with it. Here one indication suffices: Paul divides the world with a Greek optic (“Greeks and barbarians”, Rom 1:14, and βάρβαρος for the unintelligible, 1 Cor 14:11), not into Israel and goyim.

That these features are Paul’s and not the copyist’s is supported by the agreement of the oldest witnesses (𝔓46, א, B, D), which transmit these Latinisms and names without significant variants, and the same holds for the trimeter of 1 Cor 15:33, unanimous in the manuscripts. As far as I can tell, no study argues that a copyist interpolated a classical quotation into the letters. The interpolations proposed by critics are Christian or Jewish passages: Walker defends, among others, 1 Cor 14:34–35, 2 Cor 6:14–7:1, 1 Thess 2:13–16 and Rom 13:1–7, and the most widely defended are the first two; the closest to the Hellenistic that he proposes is Rom 1:18–2:29 (natural theology), in a minority position. Paul’s correspondence with Seneca, for its part, is a forgery of the mid-fourth century and counts as proof of nothing. The hypothesis is falsifiable: a Greek formed in Yerushalayim should leak systematic Semitic interference (parataxis in καί, the initial ἐγένετο that marks Luke–Acts 1–2, the solecisms of the Apocalypse), and the letters unfold in hypotactic periods (Rom 1:1–7 is a single sentence).

VII. Paul’s Aramaic is that of the market

Paul preserves, in the undisputed letters, a handful of Aramaic words: ἀββά (אַבָּא) (Rom 8:15; Gal 4:6), which he glosses on the spot with ὁ πατήρ; μαρανα θά (1 Cor 16:22), without gloss and with ambiguous segmentation (maran atha, מָרַן אֲתָא, “our Lord has come”, or marana tha, מָרָנָא תָּא, “Our Lord, come!”); Κηφᾶς כֵּיפָא (1 Cor 1:12; 3:22; 9:5; 15:5; Gal 2:9), which alternates with Πέτρος in the same chapter (Gal 2:7–8); Σατανᾶς, with the -ᾶ of the Aramaic emphatic state, as against the Hebrew Σατάν (סָטָנָא) of the LXX; and ἀρραβών (2 Cor 1:22; 5:5), a Semitic loanword (עֵרָבוֹן, Bereshit 38:17–18) that the commercial papyri know. They are a name of address, formulae of worship, a mark of state and a word of the marketplace. All are isolated words embedded in Greek, not syntax, and several come glossed or alternating with their Greek equivalent. Whoever reads Gal 4:6, κρᾶζον· ἀββὰ ὁ πατήρ (“crying: Abba, Father”), hears a bilingual formula of the community, learnt together with its translation, and not a thought in Aramaic. It is what one would expect of a man in whose Aramaic neither van Unnik’s search nor Fitzmyer’s method has found a single secure Aramaism.

Compare what someone formed in the targumic tradition or in that of Qumran would have brought: the periphrases of the targum (Memra, Yeqara, Shekhinta) that remove from the Eternal the hands and the mouth; the Aramaic exegetical vocabulary (פשר, “interpretation”), which in Qumran is a discipline; the constructions of the scribes of 11QtgJob or of the Genesis Apocryphon. None of that passes into his Greek. It is the Aramaic that one learns by listening, in the home, in the square and in prayer, not the one studied with a master. And μαραναθά gives him away: Paul transmits the formula as a sonorous fossil and does not analyse it.

VIII. Evidence that causes discomfort

The error that a talmid chakham does not make (Gal 3:16 and 3:29). Galatians 3:16 argues that the promise does not say “to the seeds” but “to your seed, who is Xristos” (οὐ λέγει· Καὶ τοῖς σπέρμασιν, ὡς ἐπὶ πολλῶν, ἀλλ᾽ ὡς ἐφ᾽ ἑνός· Καὶ τῷ σπέρματί σου, ὅς ἐστιν Χριστός: “It does not say, ‘And to the seeds’, as of many, but as of one, ‘And to your seed’, who is Xristos”). A talmid chakham does argue from grammatical number, but from a written plural: from דְּמֵי אָחִיךָ צֹעֲקִים (Bereshit 4:10, “the bloods of your brother cry out”) he deduces that God does not say “the blood of your brother” but “the bloods of your brother”, “his blood and the blood of his descendants” (דָּמוֹ וְדַם זַרְעִיּוֹתָיו, Sanhedrin 4:5). Paul deduces from a singular, and זֶרַע is a collective singular by definition: the same promise that Bereshit 22:17 multiplies “like the stars of heaven”. Thirteen verses later he himself contradicts it: εἰ δὲ ὑμεῖς Χριστοῦ, ἄρα τοῦ Ἀβραὰμ σπέρμα ἐστέ (Gal 3:29, “and if you are of Xristos, then you are the seed of Avraham”). Whoever hears the Hebrew collective beneath σπέρμα does not stumble twice in the same letter.

Two Adams without נֶפֶשׁ (1 Cor 15:45–47). Paul cites Bereshit 2:7 with two grafts of his own: ἐγένετο ὁ πρῶτος ἄνθρωπος Ἀδὰμ εἰς ψυχὴν ζῶσαν· ὁ ἔσχατος Ἀδὰμ εἰς πνεῦμα ζῳοποιοῦν (“the first man, Adam, became a living soul; the last Adam, a life-giving spirit”). Neither “first” nor “Adam” appears in וַיְהִי הָאָדָם לְנֶפֶשׁ חַיָּה or in the Septuagint; they are the hinge of a typology in which the ψυχικόν is the lower step and the πνευματικόν the higher (15:46). But נֶפֶשׁ חַיָּה is not a lower step: it is what the Torah calls fish and beasts already in Bereshit 1:20 and 1:24, and in 2:7 it designates the whole man, without dualism. The pair “soulish/spiritual” and the “earthly” man (χοϊκός) as against the “heavenly” (15:47–49) is the scheme of Philo’s two men (Opif. 134; Leg. all. 1.31), which Paul discusses from within by inverting the order. An ear that hears נפש חיה does not make that reading.

A text that exists only in Greek (Rom 3:4 and 11:26). In Rom 3:4 Paul cites:

ὅπως ἂν δικαιωθῇς ἐν τοῖς λόγοις σου καὶ νικήσῃς ἐν τῷ κρίνεσθαί σε

(“that you may be justified in your words and prevail when you are judged”).

The Hebrew of Ps 51:6, תִּזְכֶּה בְּשָׁפְטֶךָ (“you are just when you judge”), says “when you judge”: God is the subject who judges. The Greek κρίνεσθαι (middle or passive voice, “to litigate” or “to be judged”) puts God in the dock, and it is in that dock that the following objections are raised (3:5–7). In Rom 11:26 Paul writes ἥξει ἐκ Σιὼν ὁ ῥυόμενος (“the deliverer will come from Zion”). The Masoretic Text of Isa 59:20 says וּבָא לְצִיּוֹן גּוֹאֵל (“a redeemer will come to Zion”); the LXX, ἥξει ἕνεκεν Σιών (“he will come on account of Zion”). Paul follows neither: his ἐκ Σιών seems to come from another Greek text, Ps 14:7 (LXX 13:7, “from Zion the salvation of Israel”). They are two cases of the same pattern: a citation that does not go back to the Hebrew even where the Hebrew would say something else.

Glossing the Hebrew. First-century writers who know Hebrew and write for Greek readers tend to gloss it: Josephus explains σάββατα and κόρβαν; Mark translates κορβᾶν as δῶρον (7:11, “gift”); even the epistle that tradition attributed to Paul gives the etymology of Melchizedek, “king of righteousness” and “king of peace” (Heb 7:2). Paul, in the seven undisputed letters, does not explain a single Hebrew word. His only bilingualism is a liturgical Aramaic with the gloss ὁ πατήρ.

Prestige in reverse (Ant. 20.264). According to Josephus, in his Yerushalayim only he who knows the laws precisely and interprets the force of the Scriptures is wise, and one who makes a show of many languages is held in low esteem. Paul cultivates exactly the opposite capital: climax, paronomasia, optatives, diatribe, catalogues of hardships in the Stoic manner (2 Cor 4:8) and a “fool’s speech” (2 Cor 11:1) that has been compared with the ἀλαζών of the Greek mimes and with Plutarch’s treatise on self-praise (Mor. 542E), and he defends himself against his critics with a rhetorical commonplace, false modesty before eloquence (ἰδιώτης τῷ λόγῳ, 2 Cor 11:6, “unskilled in speech”), which comes from the school (cf. Plato, Apol. 17a–18a). Whoever feigns clumsiness before eloquence does so from within eloquence.

Four words that the letters do not contain. In the seven undisputed letters, Γαμαλιήλ (Gamliel), Ταρσός (Tarsus) and Σαῦλος (Saul) do not appear even once, and Φαρισαῖος (Pharisee) appears a single time (Phil 3:5). Paul always calls himself Παῦλος (Paulos), a Latin cognomen (Paullus), and his companion is Σιλουανός (2 Cor 1:19; 1 Thess 1:1), the Latinised form of the man whom Luke calls Σίλας. The Benjaminite Shaul appears only in Acts (9:4, with the Hebraising form Σαούλ). The Semitic names are on Luke’s side; the Latin ones, on Paul’s. A double name is normal in the Diaspora: what is striking is that the Semitic one lives only in the biography written by another.

“Under the law.” ὑπὸ νόμον appears in Rom 6:14–15, 1 Cor 9:20, Gal 3:23, 4:4–5, 4:21 and 5:18. As far as I can tell, neither the Tanakh nor Qumran nor the Mishnah knows a “being under the Torah” with the value of a juridical regime from which one departs; the rabbinic image is the yoke that is accepted or shaken off (עול תורה, Avot 3:5). Torah is “teaching”; νόμος is the code, and the LXX had already made that reduction. With νόμος one can be “under”, “outside” (ἄνομοι, who in the LXX are the wicked and in 1 Cor 9:21 are simply the Gentiles) or “dead to”: prepositions of jurisdiction. With the Torah one studies, one fulfils, one despises.

Hagar and the rock. Gal 4:25:

τὸ γὰρ [Ἁγὰρ] Σινᾶ ὄρος ἐστὶν ἐν τῇ Ἀραβίᾳ

(“for [Hagar] Sinai is a mountain in Arabia”)

The manuscript tradition wavers between γάρ, δέ and the omission of Ἁγάρ), which some witnesses, among them Codex Sinaiticus, omit. The Hebrew הגר means nothing like “mountain”. Since John Chrysostom a play on the Arabic ḥajar حَجَر (“stone, rock”) has been proposed, and it fits the only datum that Paul gives of his early years: he went away to Arabia (Gal 1:17). If so, the wordplay does not work in Hebrew or in the Aramaic of the targum: it depends on an association with Arabic, and must be understood as a possible phonetic play, not as a lexical or etymological equivalence. The autobiographical datum of Galatians 1:17, in which Paul affirms that after his conversion he departed for Arabia, makes it conceivable that he came into contact with the Arabic of the region, but it does not prove that he visited Sinai or that he heard that term there.

The assembly without a synagogue. συναγωγή does not appear even once in the undisputed letters, whereas ἐκκλησία, the Greek citizen assembly (and also the קהל of the LXX), appears dozens of times. It is not proof on its own, but the institution that organises Jewish life in the Diaspora is absent from the vocabulary of one who calls himself a Pharisee.

What this argument does not prove. It will be said, first, that this is an argument from silence. It is not only that: it rests on positive evidence (Gal 3:16 against 3:29, 1 Cor 15:45–47, Rom 3:4, the trimeter of 1 Cor 15:33 and the repertoire of sections V and VI), and the silence it records is comparative: that of a writer who, under the same conditions and for Greek readers, does not leave what another, Josephus, leaves at every step. A silence that a control allows one to predict is a datum. It will be said, second, that Paul dictated to a secretary (Tertius, Rom 16:22). Josephus too worked with collaborators, and the collaborators did not erase in him either the glosses, or the etymologies, or the Hebrew text of his own: the mechanism invoked for Paul is the one that has already failed in the control. Moreover, a secretary polishes style, but does not decide how Scripture is cited, what is glossed or what is argued; the reasoning of Gal 3:16 on the singular of σπέρμα and the typology of 1 Cor 15:45 are decisions of the author, and Paul himself says that he wrote with his own hand, at least in part (Phlm 19; Gal 6:11). It will be said, third, that a Diaspora Pharisee fits in Tarsus, or that Martin Hengel (The Pre-Christian Paul, 1991) defended a formation in Yerushalayim in an already bilingual environment. But both positions affirm an adscription to a school, and a school leaves a level-3 trace, which in Paul does not appear; and the bilingualism of Yerushalayim, far from explaining the absence of traces, is what makes them expected: it is the environment in which Josephus left them. It will be said, fourth, that the control belongs to a later generation. The objection plays against itself: Josephus writes in Rome, decades after leaving Yerushalayim and with collaborators for his Greek, that is, under the conditions most favourable for the Hebrew to be effaced from his prose; if even so he preserves it, the total absence in Paul weighs more, not less. It will be said, fifth, that the papyri I cite as parallels come almost all from Egypt. They prove what is asked of them: that the turns of receipt, of promissory note and of letter are imperial koine, the register that Paul commands; the argument does not depend on where he wrote, but on the kind of formation he reveals. And it will be said, sixth, that the Graeco-Roman parallels are parallels and not sources. That is true, and the argument does not need sources: it needs the repertoire to be that of the school and the square and not that of the house of study, and, when a Hebrew or Aramaic parallel has been invoked, for it to be later than Paul (the baraita of R. Meir as against Gal 3:28), disputed (Schreiner on the nurse) or non-rabbinic (Qumran). What the argument maintains, and none of these objections touches, is this: at levels 2 and 3, where a Josephus leaves a trace, Paul leaves none; in the places where his citations depart from the Hebrew, they depart towards the Greek; and the parallels that have been sought for his repertoire are, almost always, in Greek. Whoever doubts the parallels can check them against the original texts in the Hellenistic Commentary to the New Testament (Boring, Berger and Colpe, with 976 texts) and in the edition of Wettstein (1751–52).

The house of Rabban Gamliel and Greek wisdom (Sotah 49b; Bava Kama 83a). This is the most serious objection the argument faces, and the Gemara itself raises it. Mishnah Sotah 9:14 relates that in the war of Titus it was decreed ושלא ילמד אדם את בנו יוונית, “that no man shall teach his son Greek”; and a baraita dates the curse to another moment, the siege of Hyrcanus and Aristobulus, when an old man who knew that wisdom revealed to the besiegers how to bring the city down: ארור אדם שילמד לבנו חכמת יוונית, “cursed be the man who teaches his son Greek wisdom”. The Gemara in Bava Kama 83a says:

השימוש בלשון סורסי (ארמי סורי) למה? מדוע ידברו יהודים בלשון ארמית, שבה היו רגילים? אלא ידברו או לשון הקדש שהוא לשונם או לשון יונית שהיא לשון השלטון! וכיוצא בזה אמר ר' יוסי: בבבל לשון ארמי שמדברים בו יהודים למה? או שידברו לשון הקדש שהיא לשונם, או שידברו לשון פרסי שהיא לשון השלטון, והרי שחכמת יוונית מותרת! ומתרצים, אמרי [אומרים]: יש להבחין בין הדברים, לשון יוני לחוד שהוא מותר, חכמת יונית לחוד והיא שנאסרה. ומקשים על כך: וחכמת יונית מי אסירא [האם היא אסורה]? והאמר [והרי אמר] רב יהודה אמר שמואל משום (בשם) רבן שמעון בן גמליאל, על הכתוב "עיני עוללה לנפשי מכל בנות עירי" (איכה ג, נא), אמר שכך אירע לו עצמו: אלף ילדים (צעירים) היו בבית אבא, בבית הנשיאים ממשפחת הלל, חמש מאות מהם למדו תורה, חמש מאות האחרים למדו חכמת יונית, ולא נשתייר מהם לאחר המלחמות ומפלת ביתר אלא אני כאן ובן אחי אבא בעסיא! משמע שמותר ללמוד חכמת יוונית! אמרי [אומרים] בתשובה: שאני [שונים] בית רבן גמליאל, שהיו קרובים למלכות, ומשום כך היו צריכים ללמוד חכמת יוונית. וכדתניא [וכמו ששנויה ברייתא]: המספר קומי (תספורת מיוחדת לגויים) — הרי זה מדרכי האמורי ואסור. ואולם אבטולמוס בר ראובן התירו לו חכמים לספר קומי, מפני שהוא קרוב למלכות. וכיוצא בזה של בית רבן גמליאל התירו להם לספר (לעסוק) בחכמת יונית, מפני שקרובים למלכות.

The use of the Syriac language (Aramaic-Syrian)—why? Why should Jews speak the Aramaic tongue, to which they were accustomed? Rather, let them speak either the holy tongue, which is their language, or the Greek tongue, which is the language of the government! And similarly Rabbi Yose said: In Babylonia, why the Aramaic tongue that Jews speak in it? Let them speak either the holy tongue, which is their language, or let them speak the Persian tongue, which is the language of the government! And yet Greek wisdom is permitted! And they reply, they say [it is said]: one must distinguish between the matters; the Greek language by itself is permitted; Greek wisdom by itself, and it is that which was forbidden. And they object to this: and is Greek wisdom forbidden [is it prohibited]? But did not [but surely said] Rav Yehudah say in the name of Shmuel, in the name of Rabban Shimon ben Gamliel, on the verse “My eye affects my soul because of all the daughters of my city” (Lamentations 3:51), that thus it happened to himself: a thousand children (young people) were in my father’s house, in the house of the Nesi’im of the family of Hillel; five hundred of them studied Torah, the other five hundred studied Greek wisdom, and none of them remained after the wars and the fall of Betar except me here and my father’s brother’s son in Asia! It follows that it is permitted to study Greek wisdom! They say in reply: different [distinct] is the house of Rabban Gamliel, who were close to the ruling power, and for that reason needed to study Greek wisdom. And as it was taught [and as a baraita is taught]: One who cuts his hair in the komi style (a special haircut of the gentiles)—this is of the ways of the Amorites and is forbidden. However, Avtulmos bar Reuven, the sages permitted him to cut his hair in the komi style, because he was close to the ruling power. And similarly, to the house of Rabban Gamliel they permitted the study (the occupation) of Greek wisdom, because they were close to the ruling power.

—Adin Steinsaltz, Talmud Bavli: Bava Kama 83a, my own translation from the Hebrew of the Steinsaltz edition.

Earlier, the Gemara had separated the language from the wisdom: לשון יוונית לחוד, וחכמת יוונית לחוד, “the Greek language is one thing and Greek wisdom another”.

Three things must be conceded to the objection. The Greek language was not in question: Rabbi says that in Eretz Yisrael Syriac is superfluous, since the holy tongue or Greek suffice, so that a talmid chakham who spoke and wrote Greek is what one would expect, as Josephus was. If Paul sat at the feet of Rabban Gamliel HaZaken, as Acts says (22:3) and the letters do not, the passage shows that in that circle there existed, by licence, a teaching of Greek wisdom.

But none of the three touches what the article maintains, and the text adds nuances that point in the other direction. The permission is for one house, and it is motivated by closeness to power, not by the formation of a talmid chakham: the same Gemara equates it with that of Avtulmos ben Reuven (Avtolos in Sotah 49b), who is permitted to cut his hair in the Roman manner (מספר קומי) for the same reason, קרוב למלכות. The account tells of two groups of five hundred, those who learnt Torah and those who learnt Greek wisdom (who were killed), not a thousand children who studied both. It is an attributed tradition, which arrives by way of amoraim, and it does not say to which Gamliel it refers: identifying him with the one of Acts 5:34 is customary, but the text does not do so. And, above all, the objection explains why there was Greek and does not explain why the Hebrew is missing. That someone formed in a Pharisaic circle should learn Greek is precisely the hypothesis of the control: so did Josephus, with effort and with outside help, and he left the trace. Of Paul the same is asked, and he does not leave it.

Conclusion

Josephus and Paul write Greek in the same century. The first, with a priestly and Pharisaic biography, leaves in his Greek the traces left by the language in which he studied: glosses, etymologies, a Hebrew text of his own, and he confesses it. The second cites from memory a Greek text, and his only quotation of a Greek author is a textbook trimeter (1 Cor 15:33); he replies to an imaginary interlocutor in the manner of Epictetus, boxes in the stadium of Corinth and marches in a Roman triumph; he writes a Greek of the Stoic school, of the praetorium and of the promissory note; he knows of Aramaic what one knows by ear, and neither van Unnik’s search nor Fitzmyer’s method has found in him a single secure Aramaism. None of these things is a crime. What can no longer be sustained, with the letters in hand, is that they are the mark of a disciple of Rabban Gamliel. A talmid chakham can learn Greek, as Josephus did. What he cannot do is learn it without leaving a single trace of the language in which he studied.

Minimal bibliography. W. C. van Unnik, “Aramaisms in Paul”, Sparsa Collecta I (Leiden: Brill, 1973), 129–143; J. A. Fitzmyer, A Wandering Aramean (1979); R. A. Martin, Syntactical Evidence of Semitic Sources in Greek Documents (1974); Flavius Josephus, Antiquities, Against Apion, Vita, War (ed. Niese; Loeb); D. Daube, “Rabbinic Methods of Interpretation and Hellenistic Rhetoric”, HUCA 22 (1949); S. Lieberman, Hellenism in Jewish Palestine (1950); D. C. Hesseling, Les cinq livres de la Loi (1897); N. de Lange, Greek Jewish Texts from the Cairo Genizah (1996); M. Hengel, The Pre-Christian Paul (1991); J. B. Lightfoot, The Epistle of St. Paul to the Galatians (1865); Strabo, Geography 14.5.

For the Greek repertoire (section V). A. J. Malherbe, “Mē Genoito in the Diatribe and Paul”, Harvard Theological Review 73 (1980): 231–240, and Light from the Gentiles, 2 vols., NovTSup 150 (Leiden: Brill, 2014); S. K. Stowers, The Diatribe and Paul’s Letter to the Romans (1981); R. Bultmann, Der Stil der paulinischen Predigt und die kynisch-stoische Diatribe (1910); B. W. Winter, “Gluttony and Immorality at Elitist Banquets”, Jian Dao 7 (1997); H. Conzelmann, 1 Corinthians, Hermeneia (1975); D. W. Palmer, “‘To Die Is Gain’ (Philippians I 21)”, Novum Testamentum 17 (1975); S. J. Hafemann, Suffering and Ministry in the Spirit (1990); M. M. Mitchell, Paul and the Rhetoric of Reconciliation (1991), and “A Patristic Perspective on Pauline περιαυτολογία”, New Testament Studies 47 (2001); J. T. Fitzgerald, Cracks in an Earthen Vessel (1988); S. Fowl, “A Metaphor in Distress: A Reading of ΝΗΠΙΟΙ in 1 Thessalonians 2.7”, New Testament Studies 36 (1990); E. Peterson, “Die Einholung des Kyrios”, Zeitschrift für systematische Theologie 7 (1930); M. R. Cosby, “Hellenistic Formal Receptions and Paul’s Use of ΑΠΑΝΤΗΣΙΣ in 1 Thessalonians 4:17”, Bulletin for Biblical Research 4 (1994); R. N. Longenecker, “The Pedagogical Nature of the Law in Galatians 3:19–4:7”, JETS 25 (1982); N. H. Young, “Paidagogos: The Social Setting of a Pauline Metaphor”, Novum Testamentum 29 (1987); J. M. Scott, Adoption as Sons of God (1992); A. Deissmann, Light from the Ancient East; R. Jewett, Paul’s Anthropological Terms (1971); H. J. Cadbury, “The Macellum of Corinth”, JBL 53 (1934); T. Engberg-Pedersen, Paul and the Stoics (2000); W. O. Walker Jr., Interpolations in the Pauline Letters (2001); Huggins, Westminster Theological Journal 54; J. Klausner, Mi-Yeshu ʿad Paulus (1939–40); Boring, Berger and Colpe, Hellenistic Commentary to the New Testament; J. J. Wettstein, edition of the New Testament (1752). Ancient sources: Diogenes Laertius 1.33; Livy 2.32; Plutarch, Moralia 542E; Plato, Apology 40c–d; Sophocles, Antigone 461–62; the Priene calendar inscription (OGIS 458); Babylonian Talmud, Sotah 49b and Bava Kama 83a.